Fabian TraCt No. 114. 


THE EDUCATION ACT, 1902: 


How to Make the Best of It. 


PuBLISHED AND SoLD BY 

THE FABIAN SOCIETY. 


PRICE ONE PENNY. 

LONDON: 

THE FABIAN SociETY, 3 CLEMENT's INN, STRAND, Vv.C. 


0 

,;~/Stt~l 1) 

THE EDUCATION AcT, rgoz 

How to Make the Best of it, 

THE Education Act, 1902, gives to county councils and countyborough councils throughout England and Wales, excepting the 
county of London, new powers of immense importance. Hitherto 
there has been no public authority able to provide complete education 
out of public funds. For about two-thirds of England and 
Wales there were school boards, but these were not allowed to 
do more than provide elementary education. The county councils 
and county borough councils could provide nothing but technical 
education. Now, for the first time, education may be dealt with as 
a whole, without limitation or restriction. The law is, even now, far 
from satisfactory ; and it contains some very objectionable features. 
But the local authorities elected by the people can now provide as 
much education as they choose, of whatever kind they choose, at 
such fees as they choose, up to whatever age they choose, with as 
many and as valuable scholarships as they choose, without distinction 
of sex or rank or wealth. On the other hand they may, if theychoose, provide no better schools than the former school boards and 
bodies of denominational managers did, no more scholarships than 
the former technical education committees did; they may altogetherneglect secondary and university education : in short, either in 
order to save the rates, or out of dislike of some of the features of 
the law, either from grudging the common people any advanced 
education, or merely through ignorance of the enormous powers and 
beneficent opportunities newly placed in their hands, the countycouncils and county borough councils may not only fail to provide a 
complete educational system, but actually use their powers to 
prevent it. Popular control can never be real unless it is given for 
better, for worse: hence, unless both councillors and electors take 
the trouble to understand the new Act, and use it energetically in 
favor of education, it will become a weapon in the hands of those 
who either object to everything beyond the barest elementaryeducation or else place sectarian propaganda before public interests. 
It is for the electors to see that their representatives make the fullest 
possible use of the new powers, for the benefit of the whole people. 

WHO WILL BE RESPONSIBLE FOR PUBLIC EDUCATION. 

In a county borough,• the town council. 

In a county, the county council. 

But the small towns within the county may, if they choose, 
exercise some independent powers. The councils of non-county 

*Any borough having so,ooo population may become a county borough, and 
nearly all boroughs exceeding that population are county boroughs; together with 
a few (such as Canterbury) of smaller size. 


3 

boroughs of over IO,ooo population, and urban districts over 2o,ooo 
population, (a) wiii (unless they throw in their lot with the county)
be solely responsible for elementary education within their district, 
levying their own rate and being free from contribution to the 
county rate so far as elementary education is concerned, (b) maylevy a penny rate of their own, in addition to the county rate (which 
they will have to pay anyhow) for education other than elementary,

(c) may either spend the proceeds of this latter sum themselves, 
making themselves a sort of duplicate authority for secondary and 
higher education within their own districts, or relinquish this power 
to the county council. This point will be considered later. 
THE EmrcATION CoMMITTEE. 

The councils must, of course, do their work of education as theydo the rest of their work, through a committee. The Act requiresthem to appoint an education committee, and to arrange for its constitution 
by a "scheme," which must be approved by the Board 
of Education. Such a scheme must conform to the foiiowingstandards :


(I) Members of the council must be in a majority on the education 
committee, "unless, in the case of a county, the council otherwise 
determine." 
(2) Outside bodies may recommend or nominate educational 
experts for appointment on the committee, and the council may, 
" where it appears desirable," appoint such persons on the committee. 
(3) At least one woman (either married or unmarried) must be 
put on the committee. 
(4) Members of existing school boards may be made members of 
the new education committee. 
Persons disqualified from membership of the council by reason of 
holding an office or place of profit or having any share or interest in 
a contract cannot be appointed on the education committee ; but it 
is expressly provided that this shall not apply to teachers in schools 
or colleges "aided, provided or maintained by the council." 

The first thing to be done is therefore to frame the scheme for 
the constitution of the education committee. The following pointsshould be borne in mind :


(a) A clear majority of the committee should be, not only chosen 
and appointed by the town or county council, but actually members 
0j d. Otherwise the council will distrust its committee, cavil at 
its recommendations, and cut down its estimates. 
(b) The committee should be small enough for effective administration. 
In small towns, a dozen members; in larger ones, a score; 
in the very largest towns and the counties, two score is suggested. 
(c) It is convenient to allow any permanently organized bodies 
whose help or co-operation is desired, to 1'ecommend their own representatives. 
The Act allows either "nomination or recommendation." 
The better and safer course is to permit outside bodies to recommend 
only. Such bodies as the nearest university or universitycollege, and (in a town) the local trades council, might usefully be 
given, in the scheme, the right to recommend. The Act specially 

4 


mentions "associations of voluntary schools " as bodies which ma;' 
be asked to nominate or recommend members ; but there is no 
reason for giving them a positive right by scheme. Better always 
secure " persons of experience " by the simple choice of the 
council. 

(d) In counties it will be extremely important to secure the 
cordial co-operation of the non-county boroughs over Io,ooo, and 
the urban districts over zo,ooo. If there are not too many of them 
in the county, it may be desirable to invite their councils each to 
recommend a member (or they might be asked to combine for such 
recommendation). 
(e) Other outsiders should be simply chosen by the council itself. 
The sole object in the choice should be to add to the wisdom and 
general influence of the committee, so as to make it as effective as 
possible. Several women should certainly be put on, those beingpreferred who have had experience on school boards or in managingschools of different kinds, or as teachers. The choice of the other 
members should depend partly on what persons are available and 
partly on what elements the committee lacks. Thus, it would not 
be desirable that the committee, when complete, should be without 
someone acquainted with university education; or someone with 
experience of secondary schools or of voluntary schools, as manager 
or teacher; or a member of the dissolved school boards; or a working 
man of the wage-earning class ; or members practically acquaintedwith local industries; or a member of the Church of England, or a 
Nonconformist, or (in large towns) a Roman Catholic. Nor should 
it be wholly of one color politically. There is no reason for putting on 
any person merely because he is a teacher, or a minister of religion 
or a political partisan ; but the fact cannot reasonably be made an 
excuse for excluding a fit person, because all persons belong to some 
persuasion or party, and it is desirable that the committee should be 
as widely representative as possible. 
The scheme must be submitted to the Board of Education for 
approval before Dec. 1903 ; ':' and the Board must consider objections 
and may hold a local enquiry, and may, in the last resort, refuse to 
approve the sclzeme. If no scheme is approved before Dec. 1903, and 
if no extension of time has been conceded, the Board may itself 
constitute the committee by provisional order (which, if opposed, has 
to be approved by Parliament like a Bill). But it may be confidently 
predicted that the Board of Education will not lightly take this 
extreme course. Any reasonable scheme, complying with the Act, 
and providing for proper representation of all sections concerned, 
will, if insisted on by the town or county council, probably secure 
approval. 

The Act lays down no conditions as to the duration of office of 
the education committee. The scheme should provide that the 
education committee shall be appointed by the council annually ; 
and that any bodies authorized to recommend members shall do so 
annually, as well as on the occurrence of a casual vacancy in the 
place so filled. 

* The scheme ought to be on view at the local post office. 

5 


Hence a scheme for an education committee should include : 

(r) 
Total number of committee, with the number (a clear majority) 
to be members of the council. 
(2) 
Term of office of committee (one year), with provisions as to 
date for re-appointment and as to filling casual vacancies. 
(3) 
Names of the outside bodies (such as university and trades 
council ; or, in counties, non-county boroughs and largeurban districts) to be invited to recommend so manymembers for appointment by the council if thought fit. 
(4) 
Number of outside members to be chosen by the council 
itself, with either their names, or else provision that theyshall include at least one woman, and such and such classes 
of persons. 
SuB-COMMITTEES. 

It would be well for the councils of the large and populous 
counties to consider whether they might not advantageously make 
use of their option under sec. 17, 5, and draw up schemes providing 
for the appointment of separate education committees for various 
parts of their administrative area. Probably it will be found best to 
have one education committee and several sub-committees for different 
districts, which need not be exclusively composed of the 
members of the central committee for the different districts. In 
this way the committee would be able to dictate the general policy,
whilst leaving the sub-committees to administer the details. 

THE POWERS OF THE COMMITTEE. 

The education committee, so far as the law goes, stands, as to 
powers, in the same position as an ordinary town or county council 
committee. In fact, it is expressly provided in the Act that the 
common practice, according to which all matters stand referred to 
the committee for consideration and report, shall be followed except 
in case of emergency.

It will, therefore, be open to the council to leave the education 
committee in practically the same position as any other ; but convenience 
of administration, especially where the council meets at 
intervals of a month or more, will make a good deal of executive action 
by the committee necessary. The council may either require that 
this action shall be reported to it for ratification, or it may place the 
education committee in the same situation in nearly all respects as 
the watch committee of a town or the asylums committee ofa countycouncil: £.e., " the council may also delegate to the education committee, 
with or without any restrictions or conditions as they think 
fit, any of their powers under this Act except the power of raising a 
rate or borrowing money." (Sec. 17, 2.)

There will be no good administration unless the council trusts its 
committee ; and it will generally be desirable to ex:ercise this power of 
delegation, under the usual conditions. The council cannot delegatethe power of raising and borrowing money, and will, of course, retain 
the right of approving the education budget, which will be brought 
up in detail once a year. 


6 

URBAN DrsTRICTS AND NoN-CouNTY BoROUGHS. 

Non-county boroughs with populations of over ro,ooo, and 
urban districts of over . zo,ooo, are entitled to be, if they wish, themselves 
the authorities for elementary education. In that case the 
county council will have no concern with their elementary schools ; 
and they themselves will alone be responsible for their managementand finance. They will gain whatever advantages there may be in 
autonomy, at the cost of undertaking to bear their own burdens. 
They may also levy a rate up to rd. for the cost of education other 
than elementary; but as the rd. limit will prevent them from providing 
anything like enough higher grade, secondary, technical and 
other non-elementary schools, or university instruction, and as theywill in any case have to pay for what the county council provides, this 
may be regarded as a supplementary power to supply a need peculiar 
to the locality, or to enable an enterprising town to raise the 
local standard of non-elementary education above the countystandard by rd. in the £. When neither of these considerations 
exists, it will clearly be wise, both administratively and financially,
for the non-county boroughs and urban districts to throw in their 
lot with the county. Small places will have practically no choice, as 
they do not need, and cannot support, secondary schools for their own 
exclusive use. Moreover, as all evening classes are henceforth to be 
included in secondary education, these will be everywhere under the 
control of the county council, even when held in the premises of an 
elementary school. Thus, unless the small towns throw in their lot 
with the county, there will be some danger of friction and lack of 
proper connection between the day schools and the evening continuation 
classes. 

In elementary education also, the power to set up an independent 
local authority is one which should be exercised only in cases 
where a town desires, and is prepared to pay for, more education 
than the county will supply. This is so little likely to occur that 
whenever a non-county local body proposes to become the authorityfor elementary education, the electors should at once take care to 
ascertain whether the real object in view is not to provide less and 
cheaper education than the county. Fortunately that sort of savingis not practically possible, even from the shortsighted view of school 
rates as unremunerative expenditure. Autonomy involves a greatdeal of waste in the payment of separate inspectors, clerks, and 
officials. It deprives the local schools of the ad vantages of the 
county scholarships. Whatever else it might do where a town wished 
to go ahead of the county in education, it could not in any case reduce 
the rates. 

As the council is authorized to delegate to the local councils the 
administration of any institutions in their districts, it will be possible 
for them, by ceding the legal autonomy granted them in the case 
of elementary education, to obtain in return practical self-government 
in all education within their districts without sacrificing the 
complete unity of administration which is so necessary to efficiencyand economy. 


7 


FINANCES. 

The council of a county borough has, by law, unlimited rating 
powers both for elementary and higher education." The council of a 
county, before levying for the requirements of education other than 
elementary a rate of more than twopence in the pound, must obtain 
the consent of the Local Government Board. Its power of raising 
an unlimited rate for the purposes of elementary education needs no 
such consent. Councils which find the twopenny rate insufficient to 
meet their needs should apply to the Local Government Board for 
permission to increase it, a permission which will, almost certainly, 
never be refused to an energetic county.

In addition, the council will receive for educational purposes (r) 
the produce of certain duties, commonly called the whisky money; 

(z) government grants; (3) all fees in its own schools, and an agreedproportion (presumably half) of the fees in non-provided elementaryschools. 
Its expenditure will have to follow different rules in elementary 
and non-elementary education. 

With regard to education other than elementary, the council, 
like the late technical instruction committee, may make grants 
to independent secondary and technical schools and universitycolleges under governing bodies working for public education. 
In such cases the receipt for the grant is sufficient voucher for the 
auditor; and the council is not bound to concern itself about the 
details of the administration or finances of the institution in 
question, though it has the power to do so. 

But in dealing with elementary education the case is different. 
The council has no power to make grants in aid of separate institutions. 
It must itself maintain all approved public elementary schools, 
including non-provided schools (formerly called voluntary schools) 
which have separate bodies of managers; and all moneys spent on 
these, other than .for structural repairs or religious teaching, whether 
made by the managers or direct by the council, are payments by the 
council, and must appear as such singly in its accounts. The council 
may make advances to a body of managers or to any of its officials 
to be subsequently accounted for; but the accounts of the council 
cannot be passed until each payment has been vouched for separately.

Thus, teachers' salaries in denominational schools are now legallypayable directly by the council to the teachers. For the purposes of 
audit, at any rate, all these teachers are now officers of the council. 

* It is usually stated that the pos;ible county council rate for non-elementaryeducation is limited by the Act to twopence in the pound. This is not only incorrect, 
but is even the very reverse of the truth. The Act expressly contemplates the 
possibility of the county council expenditure on non-elementary education exceeding a 
twopenny rate ; and distinctly authorizes such excess, without limit, subject only to 
the consent of the Local Government Board being given. This consent is a very usual 
formality in English local government, e.g. the authority to a sanitary authority to 
incur works and borrow money under the Public Health Acts, and the authority to 
incur expenditure under the Baths and Washhouses Acts, require the prior consent of 
the L. G. B., but no one ever imagines that local bodies are therefore not authorized 
to do these things. On the other hand, the limit of a penny rate in the Public 
Libraries Acts, and the similar limit to the small towns' expenditure on non-elementaryeducation in the Education Act, 1902, are absolute legal limitations to their powers. 

8 

The method of payment is at the option of the authority; but it is 
certainly desirable that such payments should be made directly bythe council to its employees by cheque or money order. This, bymaking the teachers obviously public servants, would improve their 
status, relieve them of the sense of personal servitude which destroyedthe self-respect of the teacher under the old voluntary system, and 
tend to level up the instruction in the different schools. 

It may often be convenient to make small advances from time to 
time to the managers or head teacher for the various minor 
expenses of the school. 

Wherever in an elementary non-provided school fees are now 
charged they ought, unless in exceptional cases, to be abolished. The 
council has full power to decide whether to retain them, to alter their 
amount, or to discontinue them. So long as they exist at least 
half of them must be paid into the county fund. 

Care should be taken to obtain exact particulars of any endowment 
held by local managers of denominational schools or applicable 
to elementary education (see sec. 13). 

THE Co-oRDINATION oF EnucATION. 

Under the Act of 1902 all grades and kinds of education are for 
the first time placed under a single authority. This is one of the 
most beneficent of its provisions, because it now at last makes 
possible a thorough co-ordination, under one authority, of all forms 
of education, whether literary, scientific, commercial, artistic, or technological 
in kind, or elementary, secondary or university in grade. 
It should be the first duty of the new authority to use its powers 
in this direction to the fullest possible extent. 

To this end conferences of representatives, officials, teachers and 
others concerned with the question should be organized in each 
locality, so that the least possible friction and difficulty may be 
incurred in bringing the educational machinery of the district into 
an efficient state. 

INSPECTION. 

His Majesty's Inspector of Schools has hitherto been regarded bylocal authorities simply as the man who assessed the amount of the 
government grant. He ought of course to be a great deal more 
than this. He should be the general counsellor and monitor of 
these authorities ; and for that reason it would perhaps be well that 
he should from time to time be invited to attend the meetings of 
the education committee. 

Every council ought to have at least one inspector of its own, 
who must be able to inspect secondary as well as primary schools. 
If the area under the council's control has a population of more than 
Ioo,ooo, at least two inspectors will be necessary. Various forms of 
physical, manual, artistic and technical training will need specialistinspection, at least once a year ; and this should be arranged for bythe aid of skilled inspectors called in for the job. Counties and other 
autonomous areas might in some cases be grouped together for the 
purposes of securing the whole services of such an official, or where 
this is impracticable he could be remunerated for giving a part of his 
time to the work. 


9 

Every education committee should have the services of a skilled 
medical officer to advise as to the sanitary planning and fitting of 
school premises, old and new; to inspect the warming, ventilating,
lighting, etc. ; to report cases of overcrowding (the government grantoffers a great temptation to overcrowd the schoolrooms) ; to examine 
cases of vermin, contagious surface diseases, infection, exclusion from 
school, etc. ; to advise as to the course to be adopted for defective children; 
to examine all selected candidates for scholarships and teacher-
ships ; and to test the healthiness of the system by periodic measurements 
of the children. As the results of this work form an important 
part of the vital statistics of the whole community, it should form partof the duty of the medical officer of health, who should herein act 
under the direction of the education committee. In every important 
county and county borough, the medical officer of health should have 
at least one highly skilled assistant, specially selected for and whollydevoted to this work of school hygiene. In places where the medical 
officer of health is now a private practitioner giving part of his time 
only to his official duties, the addition of the school work will enable 
the council to retain his entire services. This would be a most desirable 
change, as public medical work is not compatible with the 
obligations of a general practitioner to his private patients. 

REPORT ON THE CouNTY OR BoROUGH. 

The first duty of the new authority will be to have a comprehensive 
report prepared, showing what provision already exists for 
the educational needs of the area under its control. This reportshould be subdivided to show the different kinds of instruction supplied, 
thus:


(I) Elementary: (a) Board schools; 
(b) Voluntary schools; 
(c) 
Classes and schools for crippled, blind, 
deaf, dumb, and mentally defective 
pupils.
(2) Evening continuation schools and classes. 
(3) 
Science, art, and technology classes ; cookery, domestic 
economy, and agricultural schools. 
(4) Secondary and higher grade schools(
a) for boys, (b) for girls, (c) mixed. 
(5) University colleges and technical institutes. 
(6) Training colleges for teachers. 
For the purpose of this survey, private venture schools of all kinds, 
including commercial classes, crammers' houses, preparatory schools 
and ladies' kindergartens, should be included and fully described. 
The report should include as full a statement as possible of the 
needs of the county or borough in each branch of education. It 
should state :


(I) Population at each age up to 2I, and how distributed. 
(2) 
Numbers of each sex over compulsory elementary school 
age attending any place of instruction (evening or 
otherwise).
(3) 
Numbers of each sex obtaining any kind of secondary 
education. 

IO 

(4) 
Numbers of each sex obtaining any kind of university 
education. 
(5) 
Trades and occupations of the population, including particulars 
of the extent and nature of any prevalent 
system of apprenticeship; the numbers employed in 
each local industry, etc. 
The best way to get this report is to appoint a special committee 
to arrange for its preparation, with authority to engage a competent 
man to inspect and report on existing institutions. The more ideas 
such a committee can succeed in bringing to the notice of the 
authority the better. 

The census authorities ought to bear the education committees in 
mind in tabulating and publishing their information ; and the committee 
should remember that the information that is most likely to be 
supplied in future censuses is that which has been oftenest asked for. 

THE MuNICIPALITY AND THE ScHoor.. 

The council of every county or county borough is now the local 
education authority; so that, for the first time, education as a whole 
is brought into relation with the other branches of municipal and 
local activity. It is to be hoped that the local authorities will take 
advantage of this, to use all the resources of the town or county to 
enlighten and broaden the education committee, and to make the 
children conscious of their position as citizens, and to imbue them 
with that spirit of municipal patriotism on which the success of so 
many of our social experiments depends.

Thus, in relation to the first object, the rate may be made to gofurther and the money exper.ded more economically if all finance, 
law and building in connection with education are dealt with by the 
appropriate branches of the council's organization. 

Again, the libraries and parks owned by the municipalities can 
be turned to excellent account for educational purposes. Municipal 
tramways might, if necessary, fix special rates for school children. 
It ought to be understood that the official staff of the education 
committee is part of the general municipal staff, and is entitled to 
the co-operation of all the town officials, the chief educational officers 
taking their places with the town clerk, borough engineer, borough 
treasurer, medical officer of health, etc., as colleagues in a singlemunicipal service of public administration. 

In a borough the mayor and other magistrates should give specialfacilities for dealing with educational cases such as non-attendance 
at school, hearing them at a special time and away from the demoralizing 
atmosphere of the police-court.

To encourage municipal public spirit among the school children 
it would be well that prizes should be given away by the mayor in 
the town hall, which might also be used for occasional exhibitions of 
work done in the school. The museum and art gallery should be 
regularly used for the education of the children; and they should 
have any important buildings or statues in the town shown and 
explained to them. If there is any special industry characteristic of 
the borough, the children should be taken periodically over some of 
the works. 


II 

Above all, a place should be given in the school curriculum to the 
technical side of citizenship. Every boy (and also every girl) should, 
before he leaves school, know the structure of the local governmentof his town at least as well as he knows the exports of China. He 
should know the boundaries of the town wards, the number of councjllors 
returned by each, the electoral qualifications, the population,
the produce of a penny rate, the method of election, the simpler 
problems of electioneering, the number of aldermen and their term 
of office, the constitution of the council, the established order of 
public meeting, the nature of a committee, and the use of such 
common books of reference as "Whitaker's Almanack"; and he 
should have attended at least once a year a meeting of the council 
after sufficient civic instruction to follow its proceedings with some 
amusement and curiosity as to which side would win in the divisions. 
In many village schools, at present, the whole political education of 
a school-child consists in teaching it to stand up when the national 
anthem is played. The councils should bear steadily in mind that 
whatever else the boys in their school may become, at least two-
thirds of them will certainly become voters, and that they can do 
wider mischief in that than in any other capacity if they are 
ignorant of the nature and importance of their political functions. 

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 

Elementary education is not defined anew by the Act of I902 ; 
but no children may remain in an elementary school after the end of 
the school year in which they reach fifteen years of age, unless with 
the consent of the Board of Education. The subjects which may be 
taught will be defined by the code in force for the time being. It 
is open to the local authority to effect unlimited improvement in the 
methods of teaching, school appliances, etc. It should be clearlyunderstood that the teaching given in evening continuation schools, 
whatever may be its character, must be classed as secondary. 

In dealing with non-provided schools the education committee 
has to act through boards of managers, who carry out the details of 
administration under the supervision of the authority.

Under Section I2 of the new Act any provided schools and (with 
the consent of their managers) non-provided schools may be groupedunder one body of managers. The representation of the foundation 
managers in the case of denominational schools must be agreed upon 
between them and the local authority, or, if they cannot agree,
determined by the board of education. In an administrative county, 
provision must be made for the due representation of minor local 
authorities. 

In the case of a borough or urban district it will generally be desirable 
to exercise this power of grouping, though it may not alwaysbe possible in the large area of a county. Grouped administration 
of this character saves a great deal of money and time, preventsfriction, and greatly increases efficiency. It obviates the necessity of 
employing many unnecessary clerks and officials, and it facilitates 
the transfer and interchange of teachers. Moreover in a small 
borough or district the number of competent educationists is never 
so large as to permit of any unnecessary multiplication of authorities. 


12 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 

The bye-laws and general standard of the elementary schools 
throughout the country should, under the new authority, be brought 
up to the present maximum : say up to the level of London at least. 

It must be insisted upon that elementary education does not 
mean merely the teaching of reading and writing by a certified 
teacher. It means the best and wisest education that can be given 
to a child up to fifteen or sixteen. The higher the standard aimed 
at the better for the community.

In those towns which have hitherto had no school board it will 
generally be found that no provision (or very little) has been made 
for the education of crippled, blind, deaf or mentally defective children. 
It will be the duty of the councils to take up this question seriously. 

The provision of proper training in cookery, laundry work, 
physical exercises and the like, cannot be efficiently made by small 
authorities. With the advent of the county council as authority we 
have a chance of seeing some real improvement.

Each school has hitherto had some difficulty in the adequateprovision of books, apparatus and pictures. It will be a considerable 
saving if these are bought wholesale by the council, the whole of the 
articles being enumerated on a requisition list, which should be sent 
annually to each body of managers, for them to order from it whatever 
is needed for their schools. 

Though the managers of many elementary schools declare that 
they have found it impossible to allow the children to take their 
books home, it ought to be possible to try the experiment, which it 
is believed would result in very little loss, and, if workable, would 
clearly possess very great aavantages.

Particular care must be taken, especially in the case of non-
provided schools, that the desks, chairs, and other furniture, should 
be bought not by the managers but, after proper advice, by the education 
committee itself, which must anyhow pay the bill. 

The new authority should give special attention to the veryimportant question of physical training. Every school should have 
easy access to a gymnasium and a swimming bath (with free admission 
for all the scholars), where instruction should be given by 
competent teachers employed at fair salaries. For this, as for other 
special subjects, it will often be possible for the same teacher to serve 
both in primary and secondary schools, and even, in small populations, 
to divide his time between two or more authorities. If no swimmingbath is provided by the local sanitary authority,':' the education 
committee should take steps to provide one in connection with a 
local school. 

RURAL S CHOOLS. 

Elementary education in rural districts is often in an extremelyunsatisfactory state. Over large areas there have hitherto been nothingbut starved and inefficient voluntary schools, over which there was 
no effective public control. Where school boards existed they have 
often been of the most unprogressive character, dominated in many 
cases by landlords and farmers whose main object was to keep down 

*See Fabian Tract No. 105, "Five Years' Fruits of the Parish Councils Act." 


I3 

the rates, and many of whom hated education with all their hearts. 
The Act of I902 makes it possible to put an end forthwith to this 
deplorable state of things.

The attendance in many rural districts has hitherto been particularlybad. It will now be possible to remedy this by appointing countyattendance officers, who, with the education committee of the countybehind them, instead of an easily terrorized rural district council or 
school board, will be independent of parochial pressure. 

The question of rural evening schools (not hitherto very successful) 
should be carefully investigated. It is to be remembered that 
the local authority has the right to the use of any school buildingfor three days a week, outside day school hours, rent free. 

PooR LAw ScHooLs AND REFORMATORIES. 

The council should endeavor to get into touch with the poorlaw guardians in order to improve the very faulty and often 
demoralizing system under which pauper children are at presenteducated. They should never be allowed to be "educated" in the 
workhouse. The education committee should cordially welcome 
their admission into the public elementary schools of the district, 
treat them in all respects like other children, and be prompt to provide 
the necessary accommodation for them as day scholars, without 
grumbling at their aggregation in this or that parish.

The abolition of the school boards makes the town and countycouncils both the largest owners and the largest customers of reformatory 
and industrial schools, which are really a part of the educational 
system of the county. Most of them will be found to need reform far 
more than their unfortunate inmates.* 

NoN-PRoVIDED Sc HooLs. 

Under the new Act the councils are placed in a strong positionin dealing with non-provided or denominational schools. The 
managers must carry out any directions they may give them as 
regards secular education, " including any directions with respect to 
the number and educational qualifications of the teachers to be 
employed for such instruction and for the dismissal of any teacher 
on educational grounds." It is also provided that "if the managersfail to carry out any such direction the local education authorityshall, in addition to their other powers, have the power themselves 
to carry out the direction in question as if they were managers"
(sec. 7, I [aJ). They are only required to maintain the school so 
long as these and other such conditions are complied with. Also 
they have the right of inspection and the right of appointing two 
out of the six managers.t Finally, it must never be forgotten that 
the teachers, though selected by the managers, are officers of the 
town or county councils, from whom they receive their salaries, and 
who alone have power to fix the amounts thereof. 

*See Fabian Tract No. III, " The Reform of Reformatories." 

t In the case of a county one of these managers is to be appointed by the countycouncil and one by the minor local authority (parish meeting or council, or urban district 
or non-county borough council) in whose area the school stands. 


The foundation managers are required by law to provide the 
structure free of expense, in good condition, and to keep it so. It 
will be necessary for the council to have a survey of all non-providedschools made by or under the county surveyor or borough engineer. 
Many of them are old and below the present standard; but it may 
not be possible to condemn them all simultaneously. In that case 
the surveyor should be instructed to pick out the worst cases for 
special attention. Express notice should therefore be given by the 
education committee immediately it comes into existence, to all 
bodies of denominational managers, stating that the fact of maintaining 
their schools must not be taken to imply that the council is 
satisfied with their structural condition, or as an admission that the law 
has been complied with; and that they must expect to receive, in due 
course, a specification of the structural repairs or alterations required. 

In the same way the council will have to settle, for every school 
within its district, the numbers, qualifications and scale of salary of 
the teachers. There is no valid reason for a distinction between provided 
and non-provided schools in this respect ; but the latter will be 
found in most cases to be understaffed and that by unqualified 
teachers at low remuneration. The education committee should at 
once give notice to the various managers and to all their teachers 
that, in beginning to maintain their schools, it must not be understood 
to accept the teachers as satisfactory, or to give them any permanence 
of tenure. The existing teachers should be expressly 
engaged only up to the termination of the current school year. In 
the meantime, the education committee should obtain reports by its 
inspectors on the qualifications and actual efficiency of all these 
teachers and the schools under their charge. The proper scale of 
teaching staff (numbers, qualifications, salaries) should be decided on 
for each school, according to its size, grade, etc. Each existing teacher 
should be considered on his merits. If he has the prescribed qualifications, 
is educationally efficient, and is otherwise suitable, he 
should be formally appointed to the post. If not, he should be onlyprovisionally appointed, told to look out for another situation, and 
informed that his case would be reconsidered at the expiration of a 
year. There will be no need for the education committee to retain 
permanently incompetent teachers who have only lately entered the 
school. But it is practically impossible to dismiss all the unqualified 
teachers, so that we must rely on filling up vacancies as they 
occur with more efficient persons, and on the general improvementin the training of teachers which will now be possible. In the 
meantime the relative inefficiency of the teachers who have been 
passed on to us by the old system should not be made an excuse for 
low salaries. It is far better to overpay an inferior man until the 
time comes for replacing him with a better than to allow the councils 
to form their scale of salaries on the results of third-rate teachers. It is 
very difficult to induce a public body to change its ideas of remuneration 
; and the practice of paying third-rate salaries to third-rate men 
invariably leads to getting third-rate men by offering third-rate salaries. 
But teachers only provisionally appointed, on account of their lack 
of qualification, etc., need not at once be put on the full scale. There 
might be a system of deduction adjusted to the merits of each case. 


IS 


The council should fix the amount it will allow towards the repairs 
of non-provided schools under the head of "wear and tear" ; and it 
must see that the amount so allowed is expended upon the objectsfor which it was granted. 

It is essential that all non-provided schools should be inspected 
by the council's representatives and officers in exactly the same 
manner as the council's own schools. 

The council will have to appoint one or two managers for everydenominational (or non-provided) school. It will be said by many 
that these .should be members of the council. This, however, will 
not always be possible, as such schools are in many places far too 
numerous. It would be better to select persons in the locality in 
whom the council has confidence and who could be depended on to 
attend regularly. The appointments should be for one year only, 
and should be revised annually at a fixed date. Lists of attendances 
should be obtained, and no manager who has neglected his duties 
should be reappointed. Women should be appointed where suitable. 

In choosing managers, educational efficiency, vigilance and tact 
should be the primary considerations ; and it should not be forgottenthat these qualifications are not practically compatible with a strong 
prejudice either for or against the tenets of the foundation managers.
The paramount business of the local authority in this case is to 
secure the utmost possible educational efficiency of the school, consistently 
with protecting the rights of conscience of child, teacher 
and parent ; and this quite irrespective of whether the educational 
efficieqcy of the school makes for or against the interest of any 
particular denomination. No person ought to accept the positionof manager of a school, if his aim is not to make that school 
educationally as efficient as possible. The more pronouncedly denominational 
a school is, the more important will it be that the 
managers representing the councils should be strong educationists 
with as little bias as possible. 

HIGHER EDUCATION. 

"The local education authority," says section 2 of the Act, "shall 
consider the educational needs of the area and take such steps as 
seem to them desirable, after consultation with the Board of Education, 
to supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary."
By this·most valuable section of the Act a definite obligation is placed 
on the authority to promote those grades of education other than 
elementary which have been so disastrously neglected hitherto except 
in a few of the great cities. 

Section 23, 2, empowers counties to aid the supply of highereducation outside their area "in cases where they consider it expedient 
to do so in the interests of their area." This provision will enable 
the smaller counties to co-operate in providinghigher education; and 
it will frequently be found expedient for them to take advantage of it. 

(a) Higher Elementary Educatiotz. 
Every county and county borough ought to make provision for 
higher elementary education: that is to say, a certain number of 
elementary schools should keep their scholars up to the age of r 5 or 


16 

16. These "ex-seventh" standards at the top of the elementaryschools are of the highest importance ; but no supply of this 
higher grade schooling must be allowed to prevent the provision of 
good secondary schools. 
(b) Secondary Schools. 
There ought to be, in every county or borough, not only a 
sufficient but a varied supply of secondary schools for boys and for 
girls. The figure of 12 boys and girls per 1,ooo population is often 
taken as a rough estimate of the accommodation required.

A borough of IO,ooo inhabitants may not be able to support two 
secondary schools, one for boys and one for girls. In such a case it 
is worth considering whether a mixed school might not be provided.
The experiment has been very successful in many places in England,
and is, of course, common in America. 

A large area ought to have separate schools for boys and for girls, 
and if possible at least one school of each type : one giving instruction 
mainly in physical science and modern languages, the other 
in classics and literature. Every important county or countyborough ought to aim at having at least one first grade school for 
boys and one for girls, providing education up to the age of r8 or 
19 and preparing for the universities. 

A list should be made of all the private venture secondary schools 
in the area. They should be offered the advantages of inspectionand examination by the local authority. If the standard of the 
school is seriously low and no attempt appears to be being made to 
bring it up to the proper level, the authority should abandon the 
school and abstain from further inspection, making known the fact 
as publicly as the law of libel permits.

It is usual at present to charge fees in secondary schools. To 
abolish them would merely be to sacrifice resources without gaining 
any corresponding advantage. But there should always be a number 
of free places awarded by competition and open to children from the 
elementary schools. 

This alone, however, would not be enough to enable a really poorchild to remain at school after it comes of age industrially (at 14 or I 5),
there must be maintenance scholarships beginning at £8 a year and 
rising to, say, £30. It is far better, from the point of view of the 
poor man, to retain fees and give maintenance scholarships, as is done 
in London, than to throw open the schools free, but to give no 
assistance to enable him to feed and clothe his child. 

The various public secondary schools within the district, usually 
scantily endowed and administered under " schemes" by responsiblebodies of governors, should be regularly inspected, and reported on 
by the officers of the education committee. They should be offered 
liberal grants, both for maintenance and equipment, on condition 
that they bring their schools up to date, place public representatives 
on their governing bodies, supply full particulars of their finances, 
school statistics and staff, and admit free a certain number of scholars 
from elementary schools. Any necessary criticisms of the buildings,
apparatus, staff, curriculum or methods of these schools should be 
pressed upon their governing bodies, but the education committee 


17 


would be wise to abstain from detailed interference with their administration. 
There is no field in which variety is so important as. 
that of secondary education. 

(c) Techmcal Instt'tutes and Umvers£ty Colleges. 
Hitherto, owing to the limitations of the Technical Instruction· 
Acts, the various technical institutes have confined themselves. 
mainly to subjects of science, art, technology and commerce. It will 
now be possible for the education committee to redress the balance,. 
and see that history and literature are not neglected. These 
technical institutes are, for most young men and women, in all but 
the largest towns, the only available means of higher education. It 
is therefore important that they should include all subjects, those-
merely cultivating as well as those obviously technical. 
But the provision.of university education itself is, under the 19 02. 
Act, as much part of the function of the local authority as the provision 
of elementary education. 
The county or borough council should make full use of the 
facilities offered by the local university or college. Scholarships.
should be given to enable the young men and women at the· 
secondary schools to take advantage of the university instruction. 
This can also be used, as we shall see, for the training of teachers. 
There must be provided more universities and university colleges.
At present, unless young men or women can afford to go to 
Oxford or Cambridge, they find themselves in many places debarred 
from any opportunity of getting the highest instruction, however 
great may be their abilities. The town councils of Birmingham,
Liverpool, Manchester and Nottingham have already decided to 
help their local university institutions. Newcastle (with Durham),. 
Bristol, Reading and Southampton ought to be aided to become-
complete universities ; while Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Huddersfield, 
Halifax, etc., could jointly provide one for Yorkshire. East Angliaand Devon and Cornwall should not lag behind. There is no 
reason why, with the powers of the 1902 Act, every part of England
should not, like Scotland and Germany, have its local university,. 
easily accessible to every talented youth, however poor. 

(d) Traz1zz'ng of Teachers. 
Every county and every county borough ought to see that it 
trains annually as many teachers as it needs. The teachers from 
one training college may, of course, go to teach in another area, or 
v£ce versa; but this fact should not prevent the authority from providing 
sufficient places of training for its own requirements.

For this purpose the education committee ought to ascertain 
how many training colleges already exist in the district, and to what 
extent they are denominational. c,.,,. 

In order to make up the deficiency, the education committee 
should make use of the day training colleges at the universities, 
sending thither by scholarships all the promising pupil teachers. 
This system avoids the disadvantage of segregating the teachers in a 
kind of seminary, and broadens their outlook on life by enabling_ 
them to mix freely with other undergraduates. 


18 

But the whole pupil teacher system will have to be reformed, and 
the education committee has unlimited powers in this direction. 

At present, as a rule, the pupil teacher in a rural or small town 
school has to do a severe day's work before having any time for 
private study; and his only tuition is obtained from the master or 
mistress of the school in which he works. This may produce technically 
capable teachers ; but it narrows their outlook by debarringthem from that contact with their fellows which should be the most 
vital part of their education. It is of enormous importance that 
these pupil teachers should be sent, if possible, to the county secondary 
schools for a time. For this purpose scholarships might be 
provided to give those gaining them two years at the best endowed 
secondary school, during which period they should do no teaching. 
It might be possible to set up a hostel, where pupil teachers could 
stay, spending, perhaps, alternate months in teaching and in study. 
Then, at the age of eighteen, they could proceed to the training 
.college or to the university.

In the towns, where the position of the pupil teacher is somewhat 
better, everything should be done to improve the present pupilteacher centres. If the pupil teacher cannot himself be sent to a 
secondary school, why should not other scholars be admitted to the 
pupil teacher centres? The segregation of the teacher from his 
fellows is always to be avoided. 

Literature useful to those who will have to Administer 
the New Act. 

THE new education authorities will (with the exception of a few small towns and the 
.elementary education authorities in some of the urban districts) be required to 
administer areas so large, and schools so numerous, that the experience of small 
school boards or the managers or governors of individual schools will be of little use 
to them. The new bodies must from the beginning aim at acting through officials 
and by the help of subordinate committees, managers and governors. They will learn 
most, therefore, from the experience in secondary education of the Technical Education 
Board of the London County Council, and the technical education committees of 
the larger counties, and in primary education from that of the London School Board. 

EDUCATION OTHER THAN ELEMENTARY. 

No body has, before the Act of 1902, had legal power to aid secondary education 
other than technical, but the word " technical " has been so widely interpreted by the 
Board of Education that a certain amount of valuable experience has been gained. 
For this purpose the following will be useful :-The Annual Report of the Technical 
Education Board of the London County Council; price 2s. 4d.; King and Son. The 
Record of Technical and Secondary Education; price 2s. 6d., quarterly; Macmillan 
and Co. 

The history of the whole question and the principles of reform are very exten


sively dealt with in-The Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, 

1893-4; nine vols.; Eyre and Spottiswoode.

A useful set of rules are those drawn up by the London County Council 
Technical Education Board on the duties of advisory sub-committees. 

Mr. Llewellyn Smith prepared for the London County Council in 1890 an admirable 
preliminary report on the problem of technical education for London, which 
might serve as a model for reports prepared by new bodies. Valuable special enquiries 
have been undertaken by the Technical Education Board in the following subjects :Building 
Trades, Commercial Education, Teaching of Chemistry, Relation of Science 
to Industry. 


ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 

Elementary schools are carried on under the Government Code of Regulations 
for Day Schools and the Revised Instructions applicable to the Code; price 4d. each; 
Eyre and Spottiswoode. The Code of Regulations and Instructions of the School 
Board for London, price 3s., P. S. King and Son, will be found to contain rules on 
many points which will have to be considered by the new authorities. A large number 
of "forms" also have been prepared by the School Board for London, the adaptingand re-printing of which may save time to members of the new authorities. 

The relation between technical and literary subjects in the curriculum of elementary 
schools was discussed at length by a Royal Commission for Ireland, and will be 
found in the Final Report of the Commissioners on Manual and Practical Instruction 
under the Board of National Education in Ireland (1898); Eyre and Spottiswoode.

School Attmdance.-See London School Board Report of a Special Committee on 
School Attendance (1898); P. S. King & Son. Report of a Special Committee of the 
London School Board on Administration of the Bye-Laws (1890); P. S. King & Son. 

Pupil Teachers.-See Report and Evidence of a Departmental Committee on the 
Pupil Teacher System (1898); price 4s. IId.; Eyre and Spottiswoode.

Domestic Economy.-See London School Board Code of Regulations and Instructions 
for the Guidance of Teachers of Domestic Subjects; price 3d. ; P. S. King& Son. 
London School Board Syllabus of Instruction in Domestic Economy, combining 
Cookery, Housewifery, and Laundry Work at Centres; price rd.; P. S. King & Son, 

Blt1zd, Dea.f and Dumb, Mentally and Physically Defective and Epileptic Children.


See Report of a Royal Commission on the Blind and Deaf (1889); 4 vols., Eyre and 
Spottiswoode. Report of a Departmental Committee on Poor Law Schools (1896);
3 vols.; Eyre and Spottiswoode. Report of a Departmental Committee on Defective 
and Epileptic Children (1898); 2 vols.; Eyre and Spottiswoode. The Mentally Dejicimt 
Child, by Dr. Shuttleworth; H. K. Lewis, 136 Gower Street, W.C. 

Industrial Schoolr.-Report of a Departmental Committee on Reformatories and 
Industrial Schools (1896); 2 vols.; Eyre & Spottiswoode. Fabian Tract No. I I I, rd. 

Books and Apparatus.-New bodies will find it very convenient to form a requisition 
list from which managers and teachers may order books and apparatus. Such a 
requisition list can be obtained from the School Board for London. 

Further Information.-Report with Evidence of a Special Sub-Committee of the 
School Board for London on the Relation between" Inspection" and Examination; 

P. S. King and Son. Report on the Existing Supply of Training College Accommodation, 
by Graham Wallas, Chairman of the School Management Committee, School 
Board for London. The School Board Gazette, published monthly, price Is., by Bern-
rose and Sons, 4 Snow Hill, London (now discontinued), was the special organ of the 
Association of School Boards in England and Wales, and usually contained importantinformation on many subjects, e.g., schools of science, training colleges, registration of 
teachers, etc., etc. With regard to general information, especially outside the United 
Kingdom, valuable help can be obtained from the eleven volumes of Special Reports 
on Educational Subjects, by M. E. Sadler, Director of Special Enquiries and Reports 
to the Board of Education ; published by Eyre and Spottiswoode. The best detailed 
account of the state of the law with regard to Education from I 870 to 1902 can be 
obtained from The Educatum Acts Manual (Owen); price 21s.; Knight and Co., La 
Belle Sauvage, Ludgate Hill; or Wyatt's Companion to the Education Acts, r87o·r9o2; 
rrice 7s. 6d. ; Wyatt, 279 Deansgate, Manchester. The best history of the developnent 
of educational legislation up to 1900 is contained in Graham Balfour's 
Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland (1898); Frowde ; 7s. 6d. 

NoTE.-The published papers and documents of the Technical Education Board 
,f the London County Council, and of the School Board for London, can be obtained 
• om P. S. King and Son, 2 and 4 Great Smith Street, Westminster, while all Governnent 
publications can be obtained from them or from Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode,

.l!ast Harding Street, Fleet Street, E.C. 

THE I902 ACT. 

Anal;•sis o.f Education Act, with full text, by H. B. N. Mothersole; 6d. net. 
How to Work the Education Act, by Dr. T. ]. Macnamara and M. Jackman; Schoolmaster 
Office, 3 Racquet Court, E.C.; rs. The Education Act, r9o2, by E. A. ]elf;
Cox, Bream's Buildings, E.C.; 2s. 6d. Everybody's Guide to the Education Act, r902, 
by H. B. N. Mothersole; 2s. 6d. net. Education Act, r902, by W. Casson and G. C. 
Whiteley; 7s. 6d. net. Educatz(m Law (Acts r870-I902), by T. A. Organ and A. A. 
Thomas; 12s. 6d. net. All sold by W. Clowes and Sons, 7 Fleet Street, E.C. 


ment of its 

Secretary, at the Fabian Office, 3 VHllwou• 

FABIANISM AND THE EMPIRE: A Manifesto. 
Edited by BERNARD SHAW. 6d. post free. 
FABIAN ESSAYS IN SOCIALISM. (35thThouse.nd.) 
Paper cover, I/·; plain cloth, 2/-, post free from the Secretary.
FABIAN TRACTS and LEAFLETS. 


Tracts, each 16 to 52 pp., price 1d., or 9d. per doz., unless otherwise stated. 
Leaflets, 4 pp. each, price 1d. for six copws, 1s. per 100, or 8/6 per 1000. . 
The Set of 84, JS. ; post free J/5· Bound in Buckram, 4/6; post free for ss. 
Boxes for set, 1s., post free 1s. 3d. 

I.-On General Socialism in its various aspects.
TRACTS.-IIJ. Communism. By WM. MoRRIS. 107. Socialism for Millionaires. 
By BERNARD SHAW. 79· A Word of Remembrance and Caution 
to the Rich. By JOHN WooLMAN. 78. Socialism and the Teaching of 
Christ. By Dr. JoHN CLIFFORD. 87. The same in Welsh. 42. Christian 
Socialism. By Rev. S.D. HEADLAM. 75· Labor in the Longest Reign.
By SIDNEY WEBB. 72. The Moral Aspects of Socialism. By SIDNEY BALL. 
6g. Difficulties of Individualism. By SIDNEY WEBB. 51. Socialism: True 
and False. By S. WEBB. 45· The Impossibilities of Anarchism. ByBERNARD SHAW (price 2d.). 15. English Progress towards Social Democracy. 
By S. WEBB. 7· Capital and Land. S· Facts for Socialsts (8thed.n. revised 1899.) LEAFLETB-IJ. What Socialism Is. I. Why are the 
Many Poor? 38. The same in Welsh. 

11.-0n Application of Socialism t.o Particular Problems. 
TRACTS.-uz. Life in the Laundry. uo. Problems of Indian Poverty.
By S. S. THORBURN. g8. State Railways for Ireland. 88. The Growth of 
Monopoly in English Industry. By H. W. MACROSTY. 86. MunicipalDrink Traffic. 85. Liquor Licensing at Home and Abroad. By E. R. 
PEASE. 84. Economics of Direct Employment. 83. State Arbitration 
and the Living Wage. 74· The State and its Functions in New Zealand. 
73· Case for State Pensions in Old Age. By G. TuRNER. 67. Women and 
the Factory Acts. By Mrs. WEBB. so. Sweating: its Cause and Remedy.

48. Eight Hours by Law. 23. Case for an Eight Hours Bill. 47· The 
Unemployed. By J. BuRNS, M.P. LEAFLETS.-8g. Old Age Pensions at 
Work. Ig. What the Farm Laborer Wants. 104. How Trade Unions 
benefit Workmen. 
111.-0n 
Local Government Powers : How to use them. 
TRACTB.-II4. The Education Act, 1902. III. Reform of Reformatories 
and Industrial Schools. By H. T. HOLMES. 109. Cottage Plans and 
Common Sense. By RAYMOND UNWIN. 105. Five Years' Fruits of the 
Parish Councils Act. IOJ. Overcrowding in London and its Remedy.
ByW. C. STEADMAN, L.C.C. 101. The House Famine and How to Relieve 
it. 52 pp. 76. Houses for the People. 100. Metropolitan BoroughCouncils: their powers and duties. gg. Local Government in Ireland. 

82. Workmen's Compensation Act: what it means and how to make use 
of it. 77· Municipalization of Tramways. 62. Parish and District 
Councils. 61. The London County Council. 54· The Humanizing of the 
Poor Law. By J . F. OAKEBHOTT. LEAFLETB.-8I. Municipal Water. 68. 
The Tenant's Sanitary Catechism. 71. Same for London. 63. Parish 
Council Cottages and how to get them. 58. Allotments and how to getthem. FABIAN MUNICIPAL PROGRAM, FIRST SERIES. London's 
Heritage in the City Guilds. Municipalization of the Gas Supply.
Municipal Tramways. The Scandal of London's Markets. A Labor 
Policy for Public Authorities. SECOND SERIES (Nos. go to 97). Municipalization 
of the Milk Supply. Municipal Pawnshops. MunicipalSlaughterhouses. Women as Councillors. Municipal Bakeries. Municipal 
Hospitals. Municipal Fire Insurance. Municipal Steamboats. 
Eac·h Series in a. red cover for 1d. (9d. per doz.) ; separate leaflets, 1/-per 100. 
IV.-On Books. 
2g. What to Read on social and economic subjects. 4th edition, enlarged 
and re-arranged. 6d. net. 
V.-On General Politics and Fabian Policy.

108. Twentieth Century Politics. By SIDNEY WEBB. 70. Report on Fabian 
Policy. 41. The Fabian Society: its Early History. By BERNARD SHAW. 
VI.-Question Leaflets, containing Questions for Candidates for the 
following bodies :-20, Poor Law Guardians. 24, Parliament. 27, Town Councils. 
28, County Councils, Rural. 56, Parish Councils. 57, Rural Distric~ 
Councils. 59, Urban District Councils. 102, Metropolitan Borough Councils. 

Boox 
BoXEs lent to Societies, Clubs, Trade Unions, for 6s. e. year, or 2/6 e. quarter 
Printed by G. Standring, 7 London, E.O., and published by the Fabian Society, 

:;:::======== 
Strand, London, W.C.